Prior to the arrival of Europeans in North America, indigenous communities spanned the continent and their population numbered in the millions (Snow, 1995).  These diverse native people thrived in nearly every habitat found across the continent; from the permafrost tundra in the far north to the dense hardwood forests of the northeast; from the endless grass in the western plains to the stifling and hostile marshlands along the southern coastline (Sturtevant, 1978).  Primarily organized into small, closely knit groups, the people lived in harmony with nature and established complex social systems rivaling those existing in other parts of the world, including Europe (Dougherty, 2018).  At times, these groups would come together to form powerful alliances.  Perhaps the most well-known of these mighty Tribal Nations are the Haudenosaunee, the People of the Longhouse.  Known to European colonists as the Iroquois, the Haudenosaunee were a confederation comprised of the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes of the Great Lakes region of what is today the United States and Canada (Beauchamp, 1905).

Haudenosaunee society is based around a clan structure in which kinship is traced through maternal lines.  Clan members considered one another family, despite sometimes belonging to different nations within the confederacy.  For example, a wolf clan member of the Seneca would be welcomed with food and shelter by his or her wolf clan relatives when traveling to a Mohawk village (Haudenosaunee Confederacy, 2020).  Men and women held equal social status within Haudenosaunee society, though roles and responsibilities were differentiated by gender.  It was believed that this balance in power was necessary to achieve social harmony (Johansen & Mann, 2000).  Each clan was led by a Clan Mother, who traced her lineage directly back to Sky Mother, the creator of life (Mann, 1997).  Clan mothers were responsible for ensuring the welfare and sustainability of the clan.  Clan mothers were empowered to appoint, and at times dismiss, the sachems, or chiefs, who sat on the Village, Nation and Grand Council Fires that comprised the three levels of Haudenosaunee government (Kahnawake Branch of the Mohawk Nation, Six Nation Iroquois Confederacy, 2013).

The people of the Tribal Nations were deeply spiritual.  They interpreted supernatural phenomena around them as evidence of spirits, gods, and the ghosts of the dead, unseen, yet all around them (Farb, 1968).  At times more malevolent spirits were believed to be responsible for causing suffering and sickness.  The men and women of the Haudenosaunee medicine societies were skilled in the secret plants and herbs, spells, dances, and ceremonies used to heal the sick and to chase away evil spirits (Haudenosaunee Confederacy, 2020).  In addition to healing sick or injured tribe members, some magic was used to imbue warriors with supernatural protection or capabilities.  Sacred charms or amulets were treasured elements of a warrior’s equipment (Milwaukee Public Museum, 2019).

Some spirits were believed to be particularly dangerous.  In Algonquian folklore, a malevolent spirit of winter can possess and transform a person into a great, cannibalistic beast with a heart of ice.  In time, and through feeding on human victims, this Wendigo could grow to gigantic proportions (Smallman, 2014).  Such creatures were thought to haunt the vast forests and to prey on hapless human victims.  In the Pacific Northwest, many tribal stories tell of a race of mysterious, hairy giants.  Some tales describe these beings as living peacefully alongside men, others warn of nocturnal raids and abductions.  While there are many names for these creatures, the most well-known is ‘Sasquatch’.

In battle, the warriors of the Tribal Nations were fearsome opponents.  Tribal warriors were not professional soldiers; rather, they tended toward tactics more akin to stalking and taking down prey.  Experienced hunters, they were able to move swiftly and stealthily through the natural environment and attack with ferocity (Dougherty, 2018).  Traditional weaponry included a variety of striking implements, including war clubs, knives, arrows and spears, as well as defensive items such as shields.  Unarmored and vulnerable to any blow, Tribal Nations warriors made effective use of surprise, misdirection and hit-and-run tactics to achieve victory in battle  (Dougherty, 2018).

It was through the use of such tactics that the warriors of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy established their regional dominance during the early part of the 17th century.  Neighboring Algonquin tribes, having acquired firearms from European traders, began to challenge Haudenosaunee control of prime hunting territories.  At a severe disadvantage due to their lack of firearms, small Mohawk war parties began to utilize guerrilla tactics in which they would stage false retreats in order to draw enemy warriors into ambushes (Otterbein, 1964).  In addition, Mohawk warriors made effective use of the terrain to stage ambushes that allowed them to quickly close the distance and engage their enemies in hand-to-hand fighting before their matchlocks could be brought to bear (Otterbein, 1964).